Mongolian script
The classical or traditional Mongolian script,[lower-alpha 1] also known as the Hudum Mongol bichig,[lower-alpha 2] was the first writing system created specifically for the Mongolian language, and was the most widespread until the introduction of Cyrillic in 1946. It is traditionally written in vertical lines
Mongolian script ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ | |
---|---|
Example text | |
Type | |
Languages | Mongolian language Manchu language (obsolete) Daur language (obsolete) Evenki language (experimentally) |
Creator | Tata-tonga |
Time period | ca.1204 – today |
Parent systems | Proto-Sinaitic alphabet
|
Child systems | Manchu alphabet Oirat alphabet (Clear script) Buryat alphabet Galik alphabet Evenki alphabet Xibe alphabet |
Sister systems | Old Uyghur alphabet |
Direction | Top-to-bottom |
ISO 15924 | Mong, 145 |
Unicode alias | Mongolian |
| |
Computer operating systems have been slow to adopt support for the Mongolian script, and almost all have incomplete support or other text rendering difficulties.
History
The Mongolian vertical script developed as an adaptation of the Old Uyghur alphabet for the Mongolian language.[1]:545 From the seventh and eighth to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the Mongolian language separated into southern, eastern and western dialects. The principal documents of the middle period are: in the eastern dialect, the famous text The Secret History of the Mongols, monuments in the Square script, materials of the Chinese–Mongolian glossary of the fourteenth century, and materials of the Mongolian language of the middle period in Chinese transcription, etc.; in the western dialect, materials of the Arab–Mongolian and Persian–Mongolian dictionaries, Mongolian texts in Arabic transcription, etc. The main features of the period are that the vowels ï and i had lost their phonemic significance, creating the i phoneme (in the Chakhar dialect, the Standard Mongolian in Inner Mongolia, these vowels are still distinct); inter-vocal consonants γ/g, b/w had disappeared and the preliminary process of the formation of Mongolian long vowels had begun; the initial h was preserved in many words; grammatical categories were partially absent, etc. The development over this period explains why the Mongolian script looks like a vertical Arabic script (in particular the presence of the dot system).[2]:1–2
Eventually, minor concessions were made to the differences between the Uyghur and Mongol languages: In the 17th and 18th centuries, smoother and more angular versions of the letter tsadi became associated with [dʒ] and [tʃ] respectively, and in the 19th century, the Manchu hooked yodh was adopted for initial [j]. Zain was dropped as it was redundant for [s]. Various schools of orthography, some using diacritics, were developed to avoid ambiguity.[1]:545
Mongolian is written vertically. The Uyghur script and its descendants — Mongolian, Oirat Clear, Manchu, and Buryat — are the only vertical scripts written from left to right. This developed because the Uyghurs rotated their Sogdian-derived script, originally written right to left, 90 degrees counterclockwise to emulate Chinese writing, but without changing the relative orientation of the letters.[3]
The reed pen was the writing instrument of choice until the 18th century, when the brush took its place under Chinese influence.[4]:422 Pens were also historically made of wood, reed, bamboo, bone, bronze, or iron. Ink used was black or cinnabar red, and written with on birch bark, paper, cloths made of silk or cotton, and wooden or silver plates.[5]:80–81
Mongols learned their script as a syllabary, dividing the syllables into twelve different classes, based on the final phonemes of the syllables, all of which ended in vowels.[6]
Name
The traditional Mongolian script is known by a wide variety of names. Due to its shape like Uighur script, it became known as the Uighurjin Mongol script.[lower-alpha 3] During the communist era, when Cyrillic became the official script for the Mongolian language, the traditional script became known as the Old Mongol script,[lower-alpha 4] in contrast to the New script,[lower-alpha 5] referring to Cyrillic. The name Old Mongol script stuck, and it is still known as such among the older generation, who didn't receive education in the new script.
Graphemes
Listed in the table below are graphemes commonly occurring, contrasting, or both. The actual use of these may differ between letterforms of different writing styles, however. For examples of those, see § Writing styles further down.
Appearance | Names | |
---|---|---|
Image | Text(?) | |
ᠡ | 'Crown' Тит(и/э)м tit(i/e)m / ᠲᠢᠲᠢᠮ titim | |
᠊ᠡ | Ацаг atsag / ᠠᠴᠤᠭ ačuγ or, 'Tooth' Шүд shud / ᠰᠢᠳᠦ sidü | |
᠊᠊ | 'Spine' Нуруу nuruu / ᠨᠢᠷᠤᠭᠤ niruγu | |
ᠵ | '(Straight) shin' (Шулуун) шилбэ (Shuluun) shilbe / ᠰᠢᠯᠤᠭᠤᠨ ᠰᠢᠯᠪᠢ siluγun silbi | |
ᠶ | 'Upturned shin' Э(э)тгэр шилбэ e(e)tger shilbe / ᠡᠭᠡᠲᠡᠭᠡᠷ ᠰᠢᠯᠪᠢ egeteger silbi | |
ᠸ | 'Hooked shin' Матгар шилбэ matgar shilbe / ᠮᠠᠲᠠᠭᠠᠷ ᠰᠢᠯᠪᠢ mataγar silbi | |
ᠷ | 'Crossed shin' Өргөстэй шилбэ örgöstei shilbe / ᠥᠷᠭᠡᠰᠦᠲᠡᠶ ᠰᠢᠯᠪᠢ örgesütey silbi | |
ᠳ᠋ | 'Looped shin' Гогцоотой шилбэ gogtsootoi shilbe / ᠭᠣᠭᠴᠤᠭᠠᠲᠠᠢ ᠰᠢᠯᠪᠢ γoγčuγatai silbi | |
ᡁ | 'Hollow shin' Хөндий шилбэ khöndii shilbe / ᠬᠥᠨᠳᠡᠶ ᠰᠢᠯᠪᠢ köndey silbi | |
ᠲ | '... shin' Артын шилбэ artyn shilbe | |
᠊ᠣ ᠊ᠣ | 'Belly/Stomach' Гэдэс gedes / ᠭᠡᠳᠡᠰᠦ gedesü | |
᠊ᠰ | 'Mouth corner' Зав(и/ь)ж Zav(i)j / ᠵᠠᠪᠠᠵᠢ ǰabaǰi | |
ᠠ | Орхиц orkhits / ᠣᠷᠬᠢᠴᠠ orkiča or, Цацлага tsatslaga / ᠴᠠᠴᠤᠯᠭᠠ čačulγ‑a | |
᠊ᠠ | 'Tail' Сүүл suul / ᠰᠡᠭᠦᠯ segül | |
ᠢ | 'Bow' Нум num / ᠨᠤᠮᠤ numu | |
᠊ᠯ | 'Horn' Эвэр ever / ᠡᠪᠡᠷ eber | |
᠊ᠮ | Гэзэг gezeg / ᠭᠡᠵᠢᠭᠡ geǰige or, 'Horn' Эвэр ever / ᠡᠪᠡᠷ eber | |
ᠵ | Жалжгар эвэр zhalzhgar ever or, 'Eyetooth' Соёо soyoo / ᠰᠣᠶᠤᠭᠠ soyuγ‑a | |
ᠴ | 'Fork' Сэрээ эвэр seree ever or, Ац ats / ᠠᠴᠠ ača | |
ᠬ | Ятгар зартиг yatgar zartig |
General orthography
The traditional or classical Mongolian alphabet, sometimes called Hudum 'traditional' in Oirat in contrast to the Clear script (Todo 'exact'), is the original form of the Mongolian script used to write the Mongolian language. It does not distinguish several vowels (o/u, ö/ü, final a/e) and consonants (syllable-initial t/d and k/g, sometimes ǰ/y) that were not required for Uyghur, which was the source of the Mongol (or Uyghur-Mongol) script.[3] The result is somewhat comparable to the situation of English, which must represent ten or more vowels with only five letters and uses the digraph th for two distinct sounds. Ambiguity is sometimes prevented by context, as the requirements of vowel harmony and syllable sequence usually indicate the correct sound. Moreover, as there are few words with an exactly identical spelling, actual ambiguities are rare for a reader who knows the orthography.
Letters have different forms depending on their position in a word: initial, medial, or final. In some cases, additional graphic variants are selected for visual harmony with the subsequent character.
The below rules for writing apply specifically for the Mongolian language, unless stated otherwise.
Sort orders
Vowel harmony
Mongolian vowel harmony separates the vowels of words into three groups – two mutually exclusive and one neutral:
- The back, masculine,[23] hard, or yang[24] vowels a, o, and u.
- The front, feminine,[23] soft, or yin[24] vowels e, ö, and ü.
- The neutral vowel i, able to appear in all words.
Any Mongolian word can contain the neutral vowel i, but only vowels from either of the other two groups. The vowel quality of visually separated vowels and suffixes are likewise affected by those of the preceding word stem. Such suffixes are written with front or neutral vowels when preceded by a word stem containing only neutal vowels. Any of these rules might not apply for foreign words however.[2]:11, 39[25]:10[26]:4[22]
Separated final vowels
A separated final form of vowels a or e is common, and can appear at the end of a word, word stem, or suffix. This form requires a final-shaped preceding consonant and an inter-word gap in between. The vowels themselves appear as ᠠ ⟨᠎
· MVS
) between the consonant and vowel.[2]:30, 77[27]:42[12]:104[26]:27[16]:534–535
The presence or lack of a separated a or e can also indicate differences in meaning between different words (compare ᠬᠠᠷᠠ(?) qar‑a 'black' with ᠬᠠᠷᠠ qara 'to look').[28]:3[16]:535
Its form could be confused with that of the identically shaped traditional dative-locative suffix ‑a/‑e exemplified further down. That form however, is more commonly found in older texts, and more commonly takes the forms of ⟨ᠲ᠋ᠤᠷ⟩ tur/tür or ⟨ᠳ᠋ᠤᠷ⟩ dur/dür instead.[25]:15[29]
Separated suffixes
Many suffixes (case and plural suffixes in particular) are likewise separated by a preceding and hyphen-transliterated gap. In digital typesetting, this gap is represented by a U+202F NARROW NO-BREAK SPACE (HTML  
· NNBSP
).[2]:30[25]:12[29][30][26]:28[16]:534
Single-letter suffixes appear as final-formed a/e, i, or u/ü (as in ᠭᠠᠵᠠᠷ ᠠ γaǰar‑a 'to the country' and ᠡᠳᠦᠷ ᠡ edür‑e 'on the day',[2]:39 or ᠤᠯᠤᠰ ᠢ ulus‑i 'the state' etc.).(?)[2]:23 Multi-letter suffixes can start with an initial-, medial-, or variant-shaped glyph (medial/variant-shaped u in the two-letter suffix ᠤᠨ(?) ⟨
Isolate citation forms
Isolate citation forms for syllables containing o, u, ö, and ü may in dictionaries appear without a final tail as in ⟨ᠪᠣ⟩ bo/bu or ⟨ᠮᠣ᠋⟩ mo/mu, and with a vertical tail as in ⟨ᠪᠥ᠋⟩ bö/bü or ⟨ᠮᠥ᠋⟩ mö/mü (as well as in transcriptions of Chinese syllables).[22][12]:105
Notes on letter tables
A dash indicates a non-applicable position for that letter.[2]:15[25]:60[12]:101, 104[28]:2–3[14]:3–4[31]:27, 30[22]
Parentheses enclose glyphs or positions whose corresponding sounds are not found in native Mongolian words.[2]:14–15[25]:9–10[12]:101[28]:3–5[31]:27
Palatalized phonemes have been excluded. These are conditioned by a following i.[27]:178
Vowels
ᠠ
‑a | a | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|
‑а | а | Cyrillic transliteration[9][32] |
— | ᠠ | Isolate |
ᠠ | Word-initial | |
ᠠ | Medial | |
ᠠ | Connected final | |
ᠠ(?) ⟨ |
— | Separated final |
ba | pa | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|
ба | па | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠪᠠ[lower-alpha 6] | ᠫᠠ | Isolate |
ᠪᠠ | ᠫᠠ | Word-initial |
ᠪᠠ | ᠫᠠ | Medial |
ᠪᠠ | ᠫᠠ | Final |
‑a | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
‑а | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠠ(?) ⟨ |
Separated suffix-initial |
ᠠ(?) ⟨ |
Separated suffix |
- Transcribes Chakhar /ɑ/;[22][33] Khalkha /a/, /ə/, and /∅/.[27]:40–42
- Separated suffixes starting with, or made up by the letter, include: ‑a (vocative or dative-locative), ‑ača (ablative), and ‑ačaγan (reflexive+ablative).[30]
- ᠠ᠋(?) ⟨
⟩ = connected galik final.[2]:26–28[12]:104 - Medial and final forms may be distinguished from those of other tooth-shaped letters through: vowel harmony (e), the shape of adjacent consonants (see QA-q/k and GA-γ/g below), and position in syllable sequence (n, ng, q, γ, d).[29]
- The final tail extends to the left after bow-shaped consonants (such as b, p, f, KA-g, and KHA-k), and to the right in all other cases.
- Derived from Old Uyghur aleph, written twice for isolate and initial forms.[1]:539–540, 545–546[34]:111, 113[12]:98
ᠡ
‑e | e | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|
‑э | э | Cyrillic transliteration |
— | ᠡ | Isolate |
ᠡ | Word-initial | |
ᠡ | Medial | |
ᠡ | Connected final | |
ᠡ(?) ⟨ |
— | Separated final |
be | pe | ke | ge | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|
бэ | пэ | хэ | гэ | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠪᠡ | ᠫᠡ | ᠬᠡ | Isolate | |
ᠪᠡ | ᠫᠡ | ᠬᠡ | Word-initial | |
ᠪᠡ | ᠫᠡ | ᠬᠡ | Medial | |
ᠪᠡ | ᠫᠡ | ᠬᠡ | Final |
‑e | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
‑э | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠡ | Separated suffix-initial |
ᠡ(?) ⟨ |
Separated suffix |
- Transcribes Chakhar /ə/;[22][33] Khalkha /i/, /e/, /ə/, and /∅/.[27]:40–42
- Separated suffixes starting with, or made up by the letter, include: ‑e (vocative or dative-locative), ‑eče (ablative), and ‑ečegen (reflexive+ablative).[30]
- Medial and final forms may be distinguished from those of other tooth-shaped letters through: vowel harmony (a) and its effect on the shape of a words consonants (see QA-q/k and GA-γ/g below), or position in syllable sequence (n, ng, d).[29]
- ᠡ᠋ = a traditional initial form.[35]:6
- The final tail extends to the left after bow-shaped consonants (such as b, p, QA-k, and GA-g), and to the right in all other cases.
- Derived from Old Uyghur aleph.[1]:539–540, 545–546[34]:111, 113[12]:98
ᠢ
i | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
и | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠢ | Isolate |
ᠢ | Word-initial |
ᠢ | Medial |
ᠢ | Final |
bi | pi | ki | gi | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|
би | пи | хи | ги | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠪᠢ[lower-alpha 8] | ᠫᠢ | ᠬᠢ | Isolate | |
ᠪᠢ | ᠫᠢ | ᠬᠢ | Word-initial | |
ᠪᠢ | ᠫᠢ | ᠬᠢ | Medial | |
ᠪᠢ | ᠫᠢ | ᠬᠢ | Final |
‑i | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
‑и | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠢ(?) ⟨ |
Separated suffix-initial |
ᠢ(?) ⟨ |
Separated suffix |
- Transcribes Chakhar /i/ or /ɪ/;[22][33] Khalkha /i/, /ə/, and /∅/.[27]:40–42
- Separated suffixes starting with, or made up by the letter, include: ‑i (accusative), ‑iyan/‑iyen (reflexive), and ‑iyar/‑iyer (instrumental).[30]
- Today often absorbed into a preceding syllable when at the end of a word.
- Written medially with the single stroke after a consonant, and with two after a vowel (with rare exceptions like ᠨᠠᠢᠮᠠ naima 'eight' or ᠨᠠᠢᠮᠠᠨ naiman 'eight'/tribal name).[2]:31[25]:9, 39[12]:7–8
- ᠢ᠋ = a handwritten Inner Mongolian variant on the sequence yi (as in ᠰᠠᠶ᠋ᠢᠨ / ᠰᠠᠶᠢᠨ sayin 'good' being written ᠰᠠᠢ᠋ᠨ sain).[25]:58[12]:49[36]:346
- Derived from Old Uyghur yodh, preceded by an aleph for isolate and initial forms.[1]:539–540, 545–546[34]:111, 113[12]:98
ᠣ
o | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
о | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠣ | Isolate |
ᠣ | Word-initial |
ᠣ | Medial |
ᠣ | Final |
bo | po | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|
бо | по | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠪᠣ[lower-alpha 9] | ᠫᠣ | Isolate |
ᠪᠣ | ᠫᠣ | Word-initial |
ᠪᠣ | ᠫᠣ | Medial |
ᠪᠣ | ᠫᠣ | Final |
- Transcribes Chakhar /ɔ/;[22][33] Khalkha /ɔ/, /ə/, and /∅/.[27]:40–42
- Written identically to u in native words;[2]:19[25]:9 distinction depending on context.
- ᠣ᠋ = the final form used in loanwords (as in ᠷᠠᠳᠢᠣ᠋ radio).[12]:98[20]
- Derived from Old Uyghur waw, preceded by an aleph for isolate and initial forms.[1]:539–540, 545–546[34]:111, 113[12]:98
ᠤ
u | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
у | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠤ | Isolate |
ᠤ | Word-initial |
ᠤ | Medial |
ᠤ | Final |
bu | pu | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|
бу | пу | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠪᠤ | ᠫᠤ | Isolate |
ᠪᠤ | ᠫᠤ | Word-initial |
ᠪᠤ | ᠫᠤ | Medial |
ᠪᠤ | ᠫᠤ | Final |
u‑a | uu‑a | uu | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|
у‑а | уу‑а | уу | Cyrillic transliteration |
— | — | ᠤᠤ(?) ⟨ |
Isolate |
ᠤᠤ | Word-initial | ||
ᠤᠤ | Medial | ||
ᠤᠠ(?) ⟨ |
ᠤᠤᠠ(?) | ᠤᠤ | Final |
‑u | ‑u | ‑un | ‑ud | ‑uruγu | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
‑у | ‑у | ‑ун | ‑уд | ‑уругу | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠤ(?) | — | — | — | Suffix | |
— | ᠤᠨ(?) | ᠤᠳ(?) | |||
— | — | ᠤᠷᠤᠭᠤ(?) |
- Transcribes Chakhar /ʊ/;[22][33] Khalkha /ʊ/, /ə/, and /∅/.[27]:40–42
- Separated suffixes starting with, or made up by the letter, include: ‑u or ‑un (genitive), ‑ud (plural), and ‑uruγu (directive).[30]
- Written identically to o in native words;[2]:19[25]:9 distinction depending on context.
- Derived from Old Uyghur waw, preceded by an aleph for isolate and initial forms.[1]:539–540, 545–546[34]:111, 113[12]:98
ᠥ
ö | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
ө | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠥ | Isolate |
ᠥ | Word-initial |
ᠥ᠋ | Medial |
ᠥ | |
ᠥ | Final |
bö | pö | kö | gö | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|
бө | пө | хө | гө | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠪᠥ | ᠫᠥ | ᠭᠥ(?) (w/o tail) | Isolate | |
ᠭᠥ᠋(?) (w/ tail) | ||||
ᠪᠥ | ᠫᠥ | ᠭᠥ | Word-initial | |
ᠪᠥ | ᠫᠥ | ᠭᠥ | Medial | |
ᠪᠥ | ᠫᠥ | ᠭᠥ | Final |
- Transcribes Chakhar /o/;[22][33] Khalkha /o/[ɵ], /ə/, and /∅/.[27]:40–42
- Written identically to ü in native words;[2]:20[25]:9 distinction depending on context.
- ᠥ᠋ = an older final form; also used in loanwords.[12]:105
- The first medial form is used in the first syllable of native words,[1]:546 and in subsequent medial positions of loanwords.
- Derived from Old Uyghur waw, followed by a yodh in word-initial syllables, and preceded by an aleph for isolate and initial forms.[1]:539–540, 545–546[34]:111, 113[12]:98
ᠦ
ü | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
ү | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠦ | Isolate |
ᠦ | Word-initial |
ᠦ᠋ | Medial |
ᠦ | |
ᠦ | Final |
bü | pü | kü | gü | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|
бү | пү | хү | гү | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠪᠦ | ᠫᠦ | ᠭᠦ(?) (w/o tail)[lower-alpha 12] | Isolate | |
ᠭᠦ᠋(?) (w/ tail) | ||||
ᠪᠦ | ᠫᠦ | ᠭᠦ | Word-initial | |
ᠪᠦ | ᠫᠦ | ᠭᠦ | Medial | |
ᠪᠦ | ᠫᠦ | ᠭᠦ | Final |
üü | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
үү | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠦᠦ(?) ⟨ |
Isolate |
— | Word-initial |
Medial | |
ᠦᠦ | Final |
‑ü | ‑ü | ‑ün | ‑ügei | ‑üd | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
‑ү | ‑ү | ‑үн | ‑үгэи | ‑үд | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠦ(?) | — | — | — | Suffix | |
— | ᠦᠨ(?) | ᠦᠳ(?) | |||
— | ᠦᠭᠡᠢ(?) | — |
- Transcribes Chakhar /u/;[22][33] Khalkha /u/, /ə/, and /∅/.[27]:40–42
- Separated suffixes starting with, or made up by the letter, include: ‑ü or ‑ün (genitive), ‑ügei (negation), and ‑üd (plural).[30]
- Written identically to ö in native words;[2]:20[25]:9 distinction depending on context.
- ᠦ᠋ = an older final form; also used in loanwords.[12]:105
- The first medial form is used in the first syllable of native words,[1]:546 and in subsequent medial positions of loanwords.
- Derived from Old Uyghur waw, followed by a yodh in word-initial syllables, and preceded by an aleph for isolate and initial forms.[1]:539–540, 545–546[34]:111, 113[12]:98
ᠧ
ē | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
е | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠧ | Isolate |
ᠧ | Word-initial |
ᠧ | Medial |
ᠧ | Final |
fē | gē | kē | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|
фе | ке | ке | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠹᠧ | ᠺᠧ | ᠻᠧ | Isolate |
ᠹᠧ | ᠺᠧ | ᠻᠧ | Word-initial |
ᠹᠧ | ᠺᠧ | ᠻᠧ | Medial |
ᠹᠧ | ᠺᠧ | ᠻᠧ | Final |
Native consonants
ᠨ
n | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
н | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠨ | Word-initial |
ᠨ | Medial |
ᠨ᠋ | |
ᠨ | Final |
n‑a | n‑e | na | ne | ni | no | nu | nö | nü | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
н‑а | н‑э | на | нэ | ни | но | ну | нө | нү | Cyrillic transliteration |
— | ᠨᠠ | ᠨᠢ | ᠨᠣ᠋ | ᠨᠦ᠋ | Isolate | ||||
ᠨᠠ | ᠨᠢ | ᠨᠣ | ᠨᠦ | Word-initial | |||||
ᠨᠠ | ᠨᠢ | ᠨᠣ | Medial | ||||||
ᠨᠠ(?) ⟨ |
ᠨᠠ | ᠨᠢ | ᠨᠣ | Final |
‑na | ‑ne | ‑nu | ‑nü | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|
‑на | ‑нэ | ‑ну | ‑нү | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠨᠠ | ᠨᠤ | Suffix-initial |
- Transcribes Chakhar /n/;[22][33] Khalkha /n/, and /ŋ/.[27]:40–42
- Separated suffixes starting with the letter, include: ‑nar/‑ner or ‑nuγud/‑nügüd (plural).[30]
- Distinction from other tooth-shaped letters by position in syllable sequence.
- Dotted before a vowel (attached or separated); undotted before a consonant (syllable-final) or a whitespace.[2]:20[1]:546[26]:6[22] Final dotted n is also found in modern Mongolian words.[12]:101 Also fully or inconsistently undotted historically (ᠨ᠋ etc.).[2]:2, 20, 25–26[34]:114[12]:97–98
- Derived from Old Uyghur nun.[1]:539–540, 545–546[34]:111, 114[12]:98
ᠩ
ng | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
нг | Cyrillic transliteration |
— | Word-initial |
ᠩ | Medial (syllable-final) |
ᠩ | Final |
ᠪ
b | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
б | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠪ | Word-initial |
ᠪ | Medial (syllable-initial/final) |
ᠪ | Final |
ba | be | bi | bo | bu | bö | bü | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ба | бэ | би | бо | бу | бө | бү | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠪᠠ | ᠪᠢ | ᠪᠣ[lower-alpha 14] | ᠪᠦ᠋ | Isolate | |||
ᠪᠠ | ᠪᠢ | ᠪᠣ | ᠪᠦ | Word-initial | |||
ᠪᠠ | ᠪᠢ | ᠪᠣ | Medial | ||||
ᠪᠠ | ᠪᠢ | ᠪᠣ | Final |
‑ba | ‑be | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|
‑ба | ‑бэ | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠪᠠ | Suffix-initial |
- Transcribes Chakhar /b/;[22][33] Khalkha /p/, /w/, and /∅/.[27]:40–42
- Separated suffixes starting with the letter, include: ‑ban/‑ben (reflexive), and ‑bar/‑ber (instrumental).[30]
- For Classical Mongolian, Latin v is used only for transcribing foreign words, so most в (v) in Mongolian Cyrillic correspond to б (b) in Classical Mongolian.
- ᠪ᠋ = an alternative/older final form.[25]:58[12]:100, 105[32]:4
- Derived from Old Uyghur pe.[1]:539–540, 545–546[34]:111, 115[12]:98
ᠫ
p | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
п | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠫ | Word-initial |
ᠫ | Medial |
(ᠫ) | Final |
pa | pe | pi | po | pu | pö | pü | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
па | пэ | пи | по | пу | пө | пү | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠫᠠ | ᠫᠢ | ᠫᠣ | ᠫᠦ᠋ | Isolate | |||
ᠫᠠ | ᠫᠢ | ᠫᠣ | ᠫᠦ | Word-initial | |||
ᠫᠠ | ᠫᠢ | ᠫᠣ | Medial | ||||
ᠫᠠ | ᠫᠢ | ᠫᠣ | Final |
- Transcribes Chakhar /p/;[22][33] Khalkha /pʰ/.[27]:40–42
- Only at the beginning of Mongolian words (although words with an initial p tend to be foreign).[28]:5[31]:27[22]
- Not occurring word- or syllable-finally.[2]:15[26]:27, 28[22]
- Transcribes /p/ in Tibetan པ /pa/.[37]:(ᢒ?) 96, 155, 247[2]:28
- Galik letter, derived from Mongolian b.[12]:98
ᠬ (1/2)
q | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
х | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠬ | Word-initial |
ᠬ | Medial (syllable-initial) |
— | Final |
q‑a | qa | qo | qu | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|
х‑а | ха | хо | ху | Cyrillic transliteration |
— | ᠬᠠ | ᠬᠣ᠋ | Isolate | |
ᠬᠠ | ᠬᠣ | Word-initial | ||
ᠬᠠ | ᠬᠣ | Medial | ||
— | ᠬᠣ | Final | ||
ᠬᠠ(?) ⟨ |
- Transcribes Chakhar /x/;[22][33] Khalkha /x/.
- Only in words with back a, o, and u vowels.[2]:15[25]:10
- Distinction from other tooth-shaped letters by position in syllable sequence. Not occurring word- or syllable-finally.[2]:15[26]:27, 28[22]
- Variously dotted/undotted, or written kaph-shaped as an initial in early orthography.[34]:114
- Derived from Old Uyghur merged gimel and heth.[1]:539–540, 545–546[34]:111, 113–115[12]:98
ᠬ (2/2)
k | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
х | Cyrillic transliteration |
— | Word-initial |
— | Medial (syllable-final) |
— | Final |
ke | ki | kö | kü | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|
хэ | хи | хө | хү | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠬᠡ | ᠬᠢ | ᠬᠦ(?) (w/o tail)[lower-alpha 15] | Isolate | |
ᠬᠦ᠋(?) (w/ tail)[lower-alpha 16] | ||||
ᠬᠡ | ᠬᠢ | ᠬᠦ | Word-initial | |
ᠬᠡ | ᠬᠢ | ᠬᠦ | Medial | |
ᠬᠡ | ᠬᠢ | ᠬᠦ | Final |
‑ki | ‑kin | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|
‑хи | ‑хин | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠬᠢ | ᠬᠢᠨ | Separated suffixes |
- Transcribes Chakhar /x/;[22][33] Khalkha /x/.
- Separated suffixes starting with the letter, include: ‑ki or ‑kin (case-bound possession).[30]
- Only in words with neutral i and front e, ö, and ü vowels.[2]:15[25]:10
- Undistinguished from GA-g.[2]:15, 24[25]:9
- Not occurring word- or syllable-finally.[2]:15[26]:27, 28[22]
- Derived from Old Uyghur kaph.[1]:539–540, 545–546[34]:111, 113, 115[12]:98
ᠭ (1/2)
γ | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
г | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠭ | Word-initial |
ᠭ | Medial |
ᠭ᠋ | |
ᠭ | Final |
γ‑a | γa | γo | γu | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|
г‑а | га | го | гу | Cyrillic transliteration |
— | ᠭᠠ | ᠭᠣ᠋ | Isolate | |
ᠭᠠ | ᠭᠣ | Word-initial | ||
ᠭᠠ | ᠭᠣ | Medial | ||
ᠭᠠ(?) ⟨ |
— | ᠭᠣ | Final |
- Transcribes Chakhar /ɣ/;[22] Khalkha /ɢ/, and /∅/.[27]:40–42
- Only in words with back a, o, and u vowels.[2]:15[25]:10
- Dotted before a vowel (attached or separated); undotted before a consonant (syllable-final) or a whitespace.[2]:21[1]:546[26]:5[22]
- May turn silent between two adjacent vowels, and merge these into a long vowel or diphthong.[2]:36–37[25][12]:49 Qaγan (ᠬᠠᠭᠠᠨ) 'Khagan' for instance, is read as Qaan unless reading classical literary Mongolian. Some exceptions like tsa-g-aan 'white' exist.
- Also fully or inconsistently undotted historically,.[2]:2, 21, 25–26[34]:114[12]:97–98
- Also transliterated scholarly with Latin ɣ.[32]
- Derived from Old Uyghur merged gimel and heth.[1]:539–540, 545–546[34]:111, 113–115[12]:98
ᠭ (2/2)
g | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
г | Cyrillic transliteration |
(⟨ |
Word-initial |
ᠭ᠍(?) ⟨ |
Medial (syllable-initial/final) |
ᠭ᠋(?) ⟨ |
Final |
ge | gi | gö | gü | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|
гэ | ги | гө | гү | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠭᠡ | ᠭᠢ | ᠭᠦ(?) (w/o tail) | Isolate | |
ᠭᠦ᠋ (w/ tail) | ||||
ᠭᠡ | ᠭᠢ | ᠭᠦ | Word-initial | |
ᠭᠡ | ᠭᠢ | ᠭᠦ | Medial | |
ᠭᠡ | ᠬᠢ | ᠭᠦ | Final |
- Transcribes Chakhar /g/;[22][33] Khalkha /g/.
- Only in words with neutral i and front e, ö, and ü vowels.[2]:15[25]:10
- Undistinguished from QA-k.[2]:15, 24[25]:9 When it must be distinguished from k medially, it can be written twice (as in ᠥᠭᠭᠦᠭᠰᠡᠨ öggügsen 'given', compared with ᠦᠬᠦᠭᠰᠡᠨ ükügsen 'dead').[25]:59[20]
- Not occurring word-initially with a consonant following it, except in loanwords such as ᠭᠱᠠᠨ(?) gšan 'moment', or ᠭᠷᠠᠮᠮ(?) gramm 'gram'.[2]:15, 32, 34[20] The final form is also found written like Manchu final ᡴ᠋ k.[38][12]:104
- May turn silent between two adjacent vowels, and merge these into a long vowel or diphthong.[2]:36–37[25][12]:49 Deger for instance, is read as deer. Some exceptions like ügüi 'no' exist.
- Derived from Old Uyghur kaph.[1]:539–540, 545–546[34]:111, 113, 115[12]:98
ᠮ
m | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
м | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠮ | Word-initial |
ᠮ | Medial (syllable-initial/final) |
ᠮ | Final |
m‑a | m‑e | ma | me | mi | mo | mu | mö | mü | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
м‑а | м‑э | ма | мэ | ми | мо | му | мө | мү | Cyrillic transliteration |
— | ᠮᠠ | ᠮᠢ | ᠮᠣ᠋ | ᠮᠦ᠋ | Isolate | ||||
ᠮᠠ | ᠮᠢ | ᠮᠣ | ᠮᠦ | Word-initial | |||||
ᠮᠠ | ᠮᠢ | ᠮᠣ | Medial | ||||||
ᠮᠠ(?) ⟨ |
ᠮᠠ | ᠮᠢ | ᠮᠣ | Final |
ᠯ
l | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
л | Cyrillic transliteration |
(ᠯ) | Word-initial |
ᠯ | Medial (syllable-initial/final) |
ᠯ | Final |
l‑a | l‑e | la | le | li | lo | lu | lö | lü | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
л‑а | л‑э | ла | лэ | ли | ло | лу | лө | лү | Cyrillic transliteration |
— | ᠯᠠ | ᠯᠢ | ᠯᠣ᠋ | ᠯᠦ᠋ | Isolate | ||||
ᠯᠠ | ᠯᠢ | ᠯᠣ | ᠯᠦ | Word-initial | |||||
ᠯᠠ | ᠯᠢ | ᠯᠣ | Medial | ||||||
ᠯᠠ(?) ⟨ |
ᠯᠠ | ᠯᠢ | ᠯᠣ | Final |
‑lu | ‑lü | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|
‑лу | ‑лү | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠯᠤ | Suffix-initial |
- Transcribes Chakhar /l/;[22][33] Khalkha /ɮ/.[27]:40–42
- Separated suffixes starting with the letter, include: ‑luγ‑a/‑lüge (comitative).[30]
- Not occurring word-initially in native words.[25]:10
- Forms a ligature with a preceding "bow"-shaped consonant in loanwords such as ᠪᠯᠠᠮᠠ(?) blam-a 'lama' from Tibetan བླ་མ་ Wylie: bla-ma.[2]:15, 32[12]:100
= ml (ᠮᠯ) written as a medial ligature.[2]:24, 36[25]:58[1]:546[12]:100 - Derived from Old Uyghur hooked resh.[1]:539–540, 545–546[34]:111, 113[12]:98
ᠰ
s | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
с | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠰ | Word-initial |
ᠰ | Medial (syllable-initial/final) |
ᠰ | Final |
s‑a | s‑e[8] | sa | se | si | so | su | sö | sü | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
с‑а | с‑э | са | сэ | си | со | су | сө | сү | Cyrillic transliteration |
— | ᠰᠠ | ᠰᠢ | ᠰᠣ᠋ | ᠰᠦ᠋ | Isolate | ||||
ᠰᠠ | ᠰᠢ | ᠰᠣ | ᠰᠦ | Word-initial | |||||
ᠰᠠ | ᠰᠢ | ᠰᠣ | Medial | ||||||
ᠰᠠ(?) ⟨ |
ᠰᠠ | ᠰᠢ | ᠰᠣ | Final |
- Transcribes Chakhar /s/, or /ʃ/ before i;[25]:58[22] Khalkha /s/, or /ʃ/ before i. Before a morpheme boundary however, there is no change of s to /ʃ/ before an i.[25]:84
- ᠰ᠋ = an older final variant form for /s/ derived from Old Uyghur zayin (as found on the Stele of Yisüngge: ᠴᠢᠩᠭᠢᠰ᠋ Činggis 'Genghis').[2]:23[1]:539–540, 545–546[34]:111, 113–114[12]:98
- Derived from Old Uyghur merged samekh and shin.[1]:539–540, 545–546[34]:111, 113[12]:98
ᠱ
š | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
ш | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠱ | Word-initial |
ᠱ | Medial (syllable-initial) |
(ᠱ) | Final |
ša | še | ši | šo | šu | šö | šü | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ша | шэ | ши | шо | шу | шө | шү | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠱᠠ | ᠱᠢ | ᠱᠣ᠋ | ᠱᠦ᠋ | Isolate | |||
ᠱᠠ | ᠱᠢ | ᠱᠣ | ᠱᠦ | Word-initial | |||
ᠱᠠ | ᠱᠢ | ᠱᠣ | Medial | ||||
ᠱᠠ | ᠱᠢ | ᠱᠣ | Final |
ᠲ
t | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
т | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠲ | Word-initial |
ᠲ | Medial (syllable-initial) |
— | Final |
ta | te | ti | to | tu | tö | tü | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
та | тэ | ти | то | ту | тө | тү | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠲᠠ | ᠲᠢ | ᠲᠣ᠋ | ᠲᠦ᠋ | Isolate | |||
ᠲᠠ | ᠲᠢ | ᠲᠣ | ᠲᠦ | Word-initial | |||
ᠲᠠ | ᠲᠢ | ᠲᠣ | Medial | ||||
ᠲᠠ | ᠲᠢ | ᠲᠣ | Final |
‑ta | ‑te | ‑tu | ‑tü | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|
‑та | ‑тэ | ‑ту | ‑тү | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠲᠠ | ᠲᠤ | Suffix-initial |
- Transcribes Chakhar /t/;[22][33] Khalkha /t/.[27]:40–42
- Separated suffixes starting with the letter, include: ‑tai/‑tei (comitative), ‑taγan/‑tegen (reflexive+dative-locative), ‑tayiγan/‑teyigen (reflexive+comitative), and ‑tu(r)/‑tü(r) (dative-locative).[30]
- Syllable-initially undistinguished from d in native words.[2]:23[25]:9[22]
- Not occurring word- or syllable-finally.[2]:15[26]:27, 28[22]
- Derived from Old Uyghur taw (initial) and lamedh (medial).[1]:539–540, 545–546[34]:111, 113[12]:98
- Positional variants on taw ⟨ᠲ/ᠲ᠋/ᠲ⟩ are used consistently for t in foreign words.[2]:23[12]:101, 104
ᠳ
d | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
д | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠳ | Word-initial |
ᠳ | Medial |
ᠳ᠋ | |
ᠳ | Final |
da | de | di | do | du | dö | dü | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
да | дэ | ди | до | ду | дө | дү | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠳᠠ | ᠳᠢ | ᠳᠣ᠋ | ᠳᠦ᠋ | Isolate | |||
ᠳ᠋ᠠ | ᠳ᠋ᠢ | ᠳ᠋ᠣ᠋ | ᠳ᠋ᠦ᠋ | ||||
ᠳᠠ | ᠳᠢ | ᠳᠣ | ᠳᠦ | Word-initial | |||
ᠳᠠ | ᠳᠢ | ᠳᠣ | Medial | ||||
ᠳᠠ | ᠳᠢ | ᠳᠣ | Final |
‑d | ‑da | ‑de | ‑du | ‑dü | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
‑д | ‑да | ‑дэ | ‑ду | ‑дү | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠳᠠ(?) | ᠳᠤ(?) | Suffix-initial |
- Transcribes Chakhar /d/;[22][33] Khalkha /t/, and /tʰ/.[27]:40–42
- Separated suffixes starting with the letter, include: ‑daki/‑deki (dative-locative or ordinal), ‑daγ/‑deg (regular action), ‑daγan/‑degen (reflexive+dative-locative), ‑duγar/‑düger (ordinal), and ‑du(r)/‑dü(r) (dative-locative).[30]
- Syllable-initially undistinguished from t in native words.[2]:23[25]:9[22] When it must be distinguished from t medially, it can be written twice, and with both medial forms (as in ᠬᠤᠳᠳᠤᠭ qudduγ 'well', compared with ᠬᠤᠲᠤᠭ qutuγ 'holy').[25]:59[20]
- The belly-tooth-shaped form is used before consonants (syllable-final), the other before vowels.[25]:58[26]:5
- Derived from Old Uyghur taw (initial, belly-tooth-shaped medial, and final) and lamedh (other medial form).[1]:539–540, 545–546[34]:111, 113[12]:98
- Positional variants on lamedh ⟨ᠳ᠋/ᠲ/ᠳ᠋⟩ are used consistently for d in foreign words.[2]:23 (As in ᠳ᠋ᠧᠩ deng / дэн den, ᠳᠡᠳ᠋ ded / дэд ded, or ᠡᠳ᠋ ed / эд ed).[20]
ᠴ
č | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
ч | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠴ | Word-initial |
ᠴ | Medial (syllable-initial) |
(ᠴ) | Final |
ča | če | či | čo | ču | čö | čü | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ча | чэ | чи | чо | чу | чө | чү | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠴᠠ | ᠴᠢ | ᠴᠣ᠋ | ᠴᠦ᠋ | Isolate | |||
ᠴᠠ | ᠴᠢ | ᠴᠣ | ᠴᠦ | Word-initial | |||
ᠴᠠ | ᠴᠢ | ᠴᠣ | Medial | ||||
ᠴᠠ | ᠴᠢ | ᠴᠣ | Final |
- Transcribes Chakhar /t͡ʃ/;[22][33] Khalkha /t͡ʃʰ/, and /t͡sʰ/ (Mongolian Cyrillic ч, and ц, respectively).[22]:§ 1.2[28]:2
- Not occurring word- or syllable-finally.[2]:15[26]:27, 28[22]
- Derived from Old Uyghur tsade, and in the 17th–18th century Classical Mongolian language distinguished from medial ǰ ᠵ through its more angular form.[25]:59[1]:539–540, 545–546[34]:111, 113[12]:98
ᠵ
ǰ | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
ж | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠵ | Word-initial |
ᠵ | Medial (syllable-initial) |
(ᠵ) | Final |
ǰ‑a | ǰ‑e | ǰa | ǰe | ǰi | ǰo | ǰu | ǰö | ǰü | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ж‑а | ж‑э | жа | жэ | жи | жо | жу | жө | жү | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠵᠠ(?) ⟨ |
ᠵᠠ | ᠵᠢ | ᠵᠣ᠋ | ᠵᠦ᠋ | Isolate | ||||
— | ᠵᠠ | ᠵᠢ | ᠵᠣ | ᠵᠦ | Word-initial | ||||
ᠵᠠ | ᠵᠢ | ᠵᠣ | Medial | ||||||
ᠵᠠ | ᠵᠢ | ᠵᠣ | Final |
- Transcribes Chakhar /d͡ʒ/;[22][33] Khalkha /d͡ʒ/, and d͡z (Mongolian Cyrillic ж, and з, respectively).[22]:§ 1.2[28]:2
- Not occurring word- or syllable-finally.[2]:15[26]:27, 28[22]
- Also transliterated scholarly with Latin j.[32]
- Derived from Old Uyghur yodh (initial) and tsade (medial), and in the 17th–18th century Classical Mongolian language distinguished from medial č ᠴ through its less angular form.[25]:59[1]:545[12]:98
ᠶ
y | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
й | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠶ(?) ⟨ |
Word-initial |
ᠶ᠋(?) ⟨ | |
ᠶ(?) ⟨ |
Medial (syllable-initial) |
ᠶ᠋(?) ⟨ | |
— | Final |
y‑a | y‑e | ya | ye | yi | yo | yu | yö | yü | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
й‑а | й‑э | йа | йэ | йи | йо | йу | йө | йү | Cyrillic transliteration |
— | ᠶᠠ | ᠶᠢ | ᠶᠣ᠋ | ᠶᠦ᠋ | Isolate | ||||
ᠶᠠ | ᠶᠢ | ᠶᠣ | ᠶᠦ | Word-initial | |||||
ᠶᠠ | ᠶᠢ | ᠶᠣ | Medial | ||||||
ᠶᠠ(?) ⟨ |
ᠶᠠ | ᠶᠢ | ᠶᠣ | Final |
‑y | ‑yi | ‑yin | ‑yuγan | ‑yügen | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
‑й | ‑йи | ‑йин | ‑йуган | ‑йүгэн | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠶᠢ(?) | ᠶᠢᠨ(?) | — | Suffix | ||
— | ᠶᠤᠭᠠᠨ(?) | ᠶᠦᠭᠡᠨ(?) |
- Transcribes Chakhar /j/;[22][33] Khalkha /j/.[27]:40–42
- Separated suffixes starting with the letter, include: ‑yi (accusative), ‑yin (genitive), and ‑yuγan/‑yügen (reflexive+accusative).[30]
- The unhooked initial and medial forms are older ones.[1]:545, 546[12]:108
- Derived from Old Uyghur yodh, and in the 19th century distinguished from initial ǰ by the borrowing of Manchu hooked yodh.[1]:545[25]:59
ᠷ
r | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
р | Cyrillic transliteration |
(ᠷ) | Word-initial |
ᠷ | Medial (syllable-initial/final) |
ᠷ | Final |
r‑a | r‑e | ra | re | ri | ro | ru | rö | rü | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
р‑а | р‑э | ра | рэ | ри | ро | ру | рө | рү | Cyrillic transliteration |
— | ᠷᠠ | ᠷᠢ | ᠷᠣ᠋ | ᠷᠦ᠋ | Isolate | ||||
ᠷᠠ | ᠷᠢ | ᠷᠣ | ᠷᠦ | Word-initial | |||||
ᠷᠠ | ᠷᠢ | ᠷᠣ | Medial | ||||||
ᠷᠠ(?) ⟨ |
ᠷᠠ | ᠷᠢ | ᠷᠣ | Final |
Foreign consonants
ᠸ
w | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
в | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠸ[lower-alpha 18] | Word-initial |
ᠸ[lower-alpha 19] | Medial |
ᠸ(?) ⟨ᠧ⟩ | Final |
w‑a | w‑e[lower-alpha 20] | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|
в‑а | в‑э | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠸᠠ(?) ⟨ |
Final |
- Transcribes Chakhar /w/;[22][33]
- Used to transcribe foreign words (originally for v in Sanskrit व /va/). Transcribes /w/ in Tibetan ཝ /wa/;[37]:254[2]:28[34]:113 Old Uyghur and Chinese loanwords.[12]:113[12]:104
- Also transliterated scholarly with Latin v.[32]
- Derived from Old Uyghur bet,[1]:539–540, 545–546[34]:111, 113[12]:97 and "waw" (before a separated vowel).
ᠹ
f | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
ф | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠹ | Word-initial |
ᠹ | Medial |
ᠹ | Final |
fa | fē | fi | fo | fü | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
фа | фе | фи | фо | фү | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠹᠠ | ᠹᠧ | ᠹᠢ | ᠹᠣ | ᠹᠦ᠋ | Isolate |
ᠹᠠ | ᠹᠧ | ᠹᠢ | ᠹᠣ | ᠹᠦ | Word-initial |
ᠹᠠ | ᠹᠧ | ᠹᠢ | ᠹᠣ | ᠹᠦ᠋ | Medial |
ᠹᠠ | ᠹᠧ | ᠹᠢ | ᠹᠣ | ᠹᠦ᠋ | Final |
ᠺ
g | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
к | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠺ | Word-initial |
ᠺ | Medial |
ᠺ | Final |
ga | gē | gi | go | gü | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
ка | ке | ки | ко | кү | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠺᠠ | ᠺᠧ | ᠺᠢ | ᠺᠣ | ᠺᠦ᠋(?) (w/ tail)[lower-alpha 22] | Isolate |
ᠺᠠ | ᠺᠧ | ᠺᠢ | ᠺᠣ | ᠺᠦ | Word-initial |
ᠺᠠ | ᠺᠧ | ᠺᠢ | ᠺᠣ | ᠺᠦ᠋(?) (w/ yodh)[lower-alpha 23] | Medial |
ᠺᠠ | ᠺᠧ | ᠺᠢ | ᠺᠣ | ᠺᠦ᠋(?) (w/ tail)[lower-alpha 24] | Final |
ᠻ
k | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
к | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠻ | Word-initial |
ᠻ | Medial |
ᠻ | Final |
ka | kē | ki | ko | kü | Scholarly/ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
ка | ке | ки | ко | кү | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠻᠠ | ᠻᠧ | ᠻᠢ | ᠻᠣ | ᠻᠦ᠋ | Isolate |
ᠻᠠ | ᠻᠧ | ᠻᠢ | ᠻᠣ | ᠻᠦ | Word-initial |
ᠻᠠ | ᠻᠧ | ᠻᠢ | ᠻᠣ | ᠻᠦ᠋ | Medial |
ᠻᠠ | ᠻᠧ | ᠻᠢ | ᠻᠣ | ᠻᠦ᠋ | Final |
ᠼ
c | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
ц | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠼ[lower-alpha 25] | Word-initial |
ᠼ[lower-alpha 26] | Medial |
ᠼ[lower-alpha 27] | Final |
ᠽ
z | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
з | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠽ[lower-alpha 28] | Word-initial |
ᠽ[lower-alpha 29] | Medial |
ᠽ[lower-alpha 30] | Final |
ᠾ
h | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
х | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠾ[lower-alpha 31] | Word-initial |
ᠾ | Medial |
ᠾ | Final |
- Transcribes Chakhar /h/[x];[22][33]
- Used to transcribe foreign words (originally for h in Tibetan ཧ /ha/, ྷ /-ha/; Sanskrit ह /ha/).[37]:69, 102, 194, 244–249, 255[2]:27–28[25]:59
- Galik letter, borrowed from the Tibetan alphabet, and preceded by an aleph for initial form.[25]:59–60[1]:545–546[12]:98, 105
ᠿ
ž | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
ж | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᠿ | Word-initial |
— | Medial |
— | Final |
ᡀ
lh | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
лх | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᡀ | Word-initial |
ᡀ | Medial |
— | Final |
ᡁ
zh | Scholarly/ |
---|---|
з | Cyrillic transliteration |
ᡁ | Word-initial |
— | Medial |
— | Final |
Punctuation
Form(s) | Name | Function(s) |
---|---|---|
᠀ | бярга byarga / ᠪᠢᠷᠭᠠ(?) birγ‑a |
Marks start of a book, chapter, passage, or first line |
᠀᠋ | ||
᠀᠌ | ||
᠀᠍ | ||
[...] | ||
᠁ | Цуваа цэг tsuvaa tseg / ᠴᠤᠪᠠᠭᠠ ᠴᠡᠭ(?) čubaγ‑a čeg |
Ellipsis |
᠂ | Цэг tseg / ᠴᠡᠭ čeg |
Comma |
᠃ | Давхар цэг davkhar tseg / ᠳᠠᠪᠬᠤᠷ ᠴᠡᠭ dabqur čeg |
Period / full stop |
᠄ | Хос цэг | Colon |
᠅ | Дөрвөлжин цэг dörvöljin tseg / ᠳᠥᠷᠪᠡᠯᠵᠢᠨ ᠴᠡᠭ dörbelǰin čeg |
Marks end of a passage, paragraph, or chapter |
᠊ | Нуруу nuruu / ᠨᠢᠷᠤᠭᠤ niruγu |
(Non-breaking) hyphen, or stem extender |
⁈ | ||
⁉ |
Numerals
Examples
Writing styles
The shapes of glyphs may vary widely between different styles of writing:[42]:8–11
- Final letterforms with a right-pointing tail (such as those of a, e, n, q, ү, m, l, s, š, and d) may have the notch preceding it in printed form, written in a span between two extremes: from as a more or less tapered point, to a fully rounded curve in handwriting (as in
– ‑un/ ‑ün ).[9]:62–63[22][17]:211–215 - As sara and ‑dur/‑dür, a resh (of r, and sometimes of l) can appear as two teeth or crossed shins pointing left; adjacent, angled, attached to a shin and/or overlapping.
- As in köke, ǰüg and separated a/e, two angled left pointing teeth can also appear on the top-left part of an kaph (k/g) or aleph (a/e).
- The lamedh (t or d) may appear simply as an oval loop or looped shin, or as more angular, with an either closed or open counter (as in
– ‑daki/‑deki or – ‑dur/‑dür). - Initial taw (t/d) and final mem (m) can likewise be found written quite explicitly loopy (as in ᠲᠣᠯᠢ
– toli or ᠨᠣᠮ – nom.
Browser‑ |
Block‑ |
Brush‑ |
Transliteration(s) & translation[7] | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Separated vowel/suffix | ||||
ᠠ, ᠠ | ‑a/ | |||
Separated suffixes | ||||
ᠢ | ‑i | |||
ᠦ | ‑u/ | |||
ᠠᠴᠠ | ‑ača/ | |||
ᠤᠨ | ‑un/ | |||
ᠯᠤᠭᠠ | ‑luγ‑a | |||
ᠲᠦᠷ | — | ‑tur/ | ||
ᠳᠦᠷ | ‑dur/ | |||
ᠶᠢᠨ | ‑yin | |||
Words | ||||
ᠨᠣᠮ | — | nom 'book' | ||
ᠪᠠ | — | ba 'and' | ||
ᠭᠣᠪᠢ | — | γobi 'Gobi' | ||
ᠬᠥᠬᠡ | köke 'blue' | |||
ᠰᠠᠢᠨ/ᠰᠠᠶᠢᠨ | sain/sayin 'good' | |||
ᠰᠠᠷᠠ | sara 'moon' | |||
ᠵᠦᠭ | ǰüg 'direction' | |||
ᠶᠡᠬᠡ | yeke 'great' | |||
Particles | ||||
ᠬᠦ | — | kü | ||
ᠦᠦ | — | — | uu/ |
Manuscript | Type | Unicode | Transliteration (first word) |
---|---|---|---|
ᠸᠢᠺᠢᠫᠧᠳᠢᠶᠠ᠂ ᠴᠢᠯᠦᠭᠡᠲᠦ ᠨᠡᠪᠲᠡᠷᠬᠡᠢ ᠲᠣᠯᠢ ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ ᠪᠣᠯᠠᠢ᠃ |
ᠸᠢ wi/ | ||
ᠺᠢ gi/ki | |||
ᠫᠧ pē/pé | |||
ᠲᠢ di | |||
ᠶᠠ ya | |||
|
Gallery
Child systems
The Mongol script has been the basis of alphabets for several languages. First, after overcoming the Uyghur script ductus, it was used for Mongolian itself.
Clear script (Oirat alphabet)
In 1648, the Oirat Buddhist monk Zaya-pandita Namkhaijamco created this variation with the goals of bringing the written language closer to the actual pronunciation of Oirat and making it easier to transcribe Tibetan and Sanskrit. The script was used by the Kalmyks of Russia until 1924, when it was replaced by the Cyrillic alphabet. In Xinjiang, China, the Oirat people still use it.
Manchu alphabet
The Manchu alphabet was developed from the Mongolian script in the early 17th century to write the Manchu language. A variant is still used to write Xibe. It is also used for Daur. Its folded variant may for example be found on Chinese Qing seals.
Vagindra alphabet
Another alphabet, sometimes called Vagindra or Vaghintara, was created in 1905 by the Buryat monk Agvan Dorjiev (1854–1938). It was also meant to reduce ambiguity, and to support the Russian language in addition to Mongolian. The most significant change, however, was the elimination of the positional shape variations. All letters were based on the medial variant of the original Mongol alphabet. Fewer than a dozen books were printed using it.
Evenki alphabet
The Qing dynasty Qianlong Emperor erroneously identified the Khitan people and their language with the Solons, leading him to use the Solon language (Evenki) to "correct" Chinese character transcriptions of Khitan names in the History of Liao in his "Imperial Liao Jin Yuan Three Histories National Language Explanation" (欽定遼金元三史國語解/钦定辽金元三史国语解 Qīndìng Liáo Jīn Yuán Sānshǐ Guóyǔjiě) project. The Evenki words were written in the Manchu script in this work.
In the 1980s, an experimental alphabet for Evenki was created.
Additional characters
Galik characters
In 1587, the translator and scholar Ayuush Güüsh (Аюуш гүүш) created the Galik alphabet (Али-гали), inspired by the third Dalai Lama, Sonam Gyatso. It primarily added extra characters for transcribing Tibetan and Sanskrit terms when translating religious texts, and later also from Chinese. Some of those characters are still in use today for writing foreign names (compare table above).[43]
Unicode
Mongolian script was added to the Unicode standard in September 1999 with the release of version 3.0. However, there are multiple design issues in Mongolian Unicode that have not been fixed until now.[44] The model is extremely unstable[45] and the user group dislike the 1999 design.
- The 1999 Mongolian script Unicode codes are duplicated and not searchable.
- The 1999 Mongolian script Unicode model has multiple layers of FVS (free variation selectors), MVS, ZWJ, NNBSP, and those variation selections conflict with each other, which create incorrect results.[46] Furthermore, different vendors understood the definition of each FVS differently, and developed multiple applications in different standards.[47]
- The Mongolian User Group is in a panic, and over 10,000 users signed up in 10 days in 2019 April to request local authority to fundamentally review the 1999 Unicode model.
Blocks
The Unicode block for Mongolian is U+1800–U+18AF. It includes letters, digits and various punctuation marks for Hudum Mongolian, Todo Mongolian, Xibe (Manchu), Manchu proper, and Ali Gali, as well as extensions for transcribing Sanskrit and Tibetan.
Mongolian[1][2] Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF) | ||||||||||||||||
0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | A | B | C | D | E | F | |
U+180x | ᠀ | ᠁ | ᠂ | ᠃ | ᠄ | ᠅ | ᠆ | ᠇ | ᠈ | ᠉ | ᠊ | FV S1 |
FV S2 |
FV S3 |
MV S |
|
U+181x | ᠐ | ᠑ | ᠒ | ᠓ | ᠔ | ᠕ | ᠖ | ᠗ | ᠘ | ᠙ | ||||||
U+182x | ᠠ | ᠡ | ᠢ | ᠣ | ᠤ | ᠥ | ᠦ | ᠧ | ᠨ | ᠩ | ᠪ | ᠫ | ᠬ | ᠭ | ᠮ | ᠯ |
U+183x | ᠰ | ᠱ | ᠲ | ᠳ | ᠴ | ᠵ | ᠶ | ᠷ | ᠸ | ᠹ | ᠺ | ᠻ | ᠼ | ᠽ | ᠾ | ᠿ |
U+184x | ᡀ | ᡁ | ᡂ | ᡃ | ᡄ | ᡅ | ᡆ | ᡇ | ᡈ | ᡉ | ᡊ | ᡋ | ᡌ | ᡍ | ᡎ | ᡏ |
U+185x | ᡐ | ᡑ | ᡒ | ᡓ | ᡔ | ᡕ | ᡖ | ᡗ | ᡘ | ᡙ | ᡚ | ᡛ | ᡜ | ᡝ | ᡞ | ᡟ |
U+186x | ᡠ | ᡡ | ᡢ | ᡣ | ᡤ | ᡥ | ᡦ | ᡧ | ᡨ | ᡩ | ᡪ | ᡫ | ᡬ | ᡭ | ᡮ | ᡯ |
U+187x | ᡰ | ᡱ | ᡲ | ᡳ | ᡴ | ᡵ | ᡶ | ᡷ | ᡸ | |||||||
U+188x | ᢀ | ᢁ | ᢂ | ᢃ | ᢄ | ᢅ | ᢆ | ᢇ | ᢈ | ᢉ | ᢊ | ᢋ | ᢌ | ᢍ | ᢎ | ᢏ |
U+189x | ᢐ | ᢑ | ᢒ | ᢓ | ᢔ | ᢕ | ᢖ | ᢗ | ᢘ | ᢙ | ᢚ | ᢛ | ᢜ | ᢝ | ᢞ | ᢟ |
U+18Ax | ᢠ | ᢡ | ᢢ | ᢣ | ᢤ | ᢥ | ᢦ | ᢧ | ᢨ | ᢩ | ᢪ | |||||
Notes |
The Mongolian Supplement block (U+11660–U+1167F) was added to the Unicode Standard in June, 2016 with the release of version 9.0:
Mongolian Supplement[1][2] Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF) | ||||||||||||||||
0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | A | B | C | D | E | F | |
U+1166x | 𑙠 | 𑙡 | 𑙢 | 𑙣 | 𑙤 | 𑙥 | 𑙦 | 𑙧 | 𑙨 | 𑙩 | 𑙪 | 𑙫 | 𑙬 | |||
U+1167x | ||||||||||||||||
Notes |
Font issues
Although the Mongolian script has been defined in Unicode since 1999, there was no native support for Unicode Mongolian from the major vendors until the release of the Windows Vista operating system in 2007 and fonts need to be installed in Windows XP and Windows 2000 to show properly, and so Unicode Mongolian is not yet widely used. In China, legacy encodings such as the Private Use Areas (PUA) Unicode mappings and GB18030 mappings of the Menksoft IMEs (espc. Menksoft Mongolian IME) are more commonly used than Unicode for writing web pages and electronic documents in Mongolian.
The inclusion of a Unicode Mongolian font and keyboard layout in Windows Vista has meant that Unicode Mongolian is now gradually becoming more popular, but the complexity of the Unicode Mongolian encoding model and the lack of a clear definition for the use variation selectors are still barriers to its widespread adoption, as is the lack of support for inline vertical display. As of 2015 there are no fonts that successfully display all of Mongolian correctly when written in Unicode. A report published in 2011 revealed many shortcomings with automatic rendering in all three Unicode Mongolian fonts the authors surveyed, including Microsoft's Mongolian Baiti.[48]
Furthermore, Mongolian language support has suffered from buggy implementations: the initial version of Microsoft's Mongolian Baiti font (version 5.00) was, in the supplier's own words, "almost unusable",[49] and as of 2011 there remain some minor bugs with the rendering of suffixes in Firefox.[50] Other fonts, such as Monotype's Mongol Usug and Myatav Erdenechimeg's MongolianScript, suffer even more serious bugs.[48]
In January 2013, Menksoft released several OpenType Mongolian fonts, delivered with its Menksoft Mongolian IME 2012. These fonts strictly follow Unicode standard, i.e. bichig is no longer realized as "B+I+CH+I+G+FVS2" (incorrect) but "B+I+CH+I+G" (correct), which is not done by Microsoft and Founder's Mongolian Baiti, Monotype's Mongol Usug, or Myatav Erdenechimeg's MongolianScript.[51] However, due to the impact of Mongolian Baiti, many still use the Microsoft defined incorrect realization "B+I+CH+I+G+FVS2", which results in an incorrect rendering in correctly-designed fonts like Menk Qagan Tig.
Mongolian script can be represented in LaTeX with the MonTeX package.[52]
Sometimes even if a font is installed the script may display as horizontal rather than vertical depending on the operating system or font.
Sample
In text sample below, the appearance of the scripts should match. The more specific shapes include the final shapes on lines 1 (yin suffix), 3 (separated a), and 4/6 (vowel harmony dependent g) in the middle column, and the interrogative particle uu/üü in the rightmost column. Note that in some browsers, letters are rotated 90° counterclockwise. If the isolate letter a (ᠠ) resembles a 'W' and not a 'Σ', rotate the letters 90° clockwise.
Reference text | ||
---|---|---|
Browser-rendered text | ᠴᠣᠷᠢ ᠶᠢᠨ ᠭᠠᠭᠴᠠ ᠪᠣᠰᠤᠭᠠ ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ᠄ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ | ᠦᠦ |
Notes
- In Mongolian script: ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ ⟨
⟩ Mongγol bičig; in Mongolian Cyrillic: Монгол бичиг Mongol bichig - In Mongolian script: ᠬᠤᠳᠤᠮ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ; Mongolian Cyrillic: Khalkha: Худам Монгол бичиг, Khudam Mongol bichig, Buryat: Худам Монгол бэшэг, Khudam Mongol besheg, Kalmyk: Хуудм Моңһл бичг, Xuudm Moñhl biçg
- Mongolian: Уйгуржин монгол бичиг
- Mongolian: Хуучин монгол бичиг
- Mongolian: Шинэ үсэг
- As in ba 'and'.[2]:22
- Stand-in for the correct (context-sensitive only) glyph.
- As in bi 'I'.[2]:22
- As in bo.[20]:22
- Interrogative particle.[25]:38
- As in the final diphthongs u-a and uu-a.[2]:31
- As in the strengthening kü particle.[25]:46
- Interrogative particle.[25]:38
- As in бо.[20]:22
- As in the strengthening kü particle.[25]:46
- As in kö/хөө.[20]
- As in ǰ‑a/за(а) 'well', 'allright'.[2]:24[17]:345[20], emphatic final.[25]:46, 59, doubt-expressing ǰ‑a and corroborative ǰ‑e particle.[39].
- As in ᠸᠢᠸᠠᠩᠭᠢᠷᠢᠳ wiwanggirid / вивангирид vivangirid.[2]:12[20]
- As in ᠳᠠᠸᠠ dawa / даваа davaa.[20]
- [8][12]:102[22]
- As in ᠪᠣᠳᠢᠰᠠᠳ᠋ᠸᠠ bodisadw‑a / бодисадва bodisadva.[20]
- With a vertical tail is correct, but ᠺᠦ᠋ renders incorrectly (without) as of Noto 1.04.
- With a yodh/shilbe is correct, but ᠺᠦ᠋ renders incorrectly (without) as of Noto 1.04.
- With a vertical tail is correct, but ᠺᠦ᠋ renders incorrectly (without) as of Noto 1.04.
- As in ᠼᠧᠮᠧᠨ᠋ᠲ cēmēnt / цемент tsyemyent.[20]
- As in ᠰᠲᠠᠨ᠋ᠼᠢ stanci / станц stants.[20]
- As in ᠲᠷᠠᠫᠧᠼ trapēc / трапец trapyets.[20]
- As in ᠽᠠᠨᠳᠠᠨ zandan / зандан zandan.[20]
- As in ᠪᠧᠨ᠋ᠽᠢᠨ bēnzin / бензин benzin.[20]
- As in ᠪᠷᠣᠨ᠋ᠽ bronz / бронз bronz.[20]
- As in sanskrit hari 'green',[2]:15 or ᠾᠷᠣᠮ hrom / хром khrom.[20]
- Lee & Zee (2003) and Lin (2007) transcribe these as approximants, while Duanmu (2007) transcribes these as voiced fricatives. The actual pronunciation has been acoustically measured to be more approximant-like.[40]
References
- Daniels, Peter T. (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7.
- Poppe, Nicholas (1974). Grammar of Written Mongolian. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-00684-2.
- György Kara, "Aramaic Scripts for Altaic Languages", in Daniels & Bright The World's Writing Systems, 1994.
- Shepherd, Margaret (2013-07-03). Learn World Calligraphy: Discover African, Arabic, Chinese, Ethiopic, Greek, Hebrew, Indian, Japanese, Korean, Mongolian, Russian, Thai, Tibetan Calligraphy, and Beyond. Potter/Ten Speed/Harmony/Rodale. ISBN 978-0-8230-8230-8.
- Berkwitz, Stephen C.; Schober, Juliane; Brown, Claudia (2009-01-13). Buddhist Manuscript Cultures: Knowledge, Ritual, and Art. Routledge. ISBN 9781134002429.
- Chinggeltei. (1963) A Grammar of the Mongol Language. New York, Frederick Ungar Publishing Co. p. 15.
- Lessing, Ferdinand (1960). Mongolian-English Dictionary (PDF). University of California Press.
- "UNU/IIST Report No. 170 Traditional Mongolian Script in the ISO/IEC 10646 and Unicode Standards" (PDF). unicode.org. Aug 1999. Retrieved 2019-07-29.
- Скородумова, Лидия Григорьевна (2000). Введение в старописьменный монгольский язык: учебное пособие (PDF) (in Russian). Изд-во Дом "Муравей-Гайд". ISBN 9785846300156.
- Shagdarsürüng, Tseveliin (2001). "Study of Mongolian Scripts (Graphic Study or Grammatology). Enl". Bibliotheca Mongolica: Monograph 1.
- Unicode MD020 (2004)
- Janhunen, Juha (2006-01-27). The Mongolic Languages. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79689-1.
- Jugder, Luvsandorj (2008). "Diacritic marks in the Mongolian script and the 'darkness of confusion of letters'". In J. Vacek; A. Oberfalzerová (eds.). MONGOLO-TIBETICA PRAGENSIA '08, Linguistics, Ethnolinguistics, Religion and Culture. 1/1. Praha: Charles University and Triton. pp. 45–98. ISSN 1803-5647.
- "The Mongolian Script" (PDF). Lingua Mongolia.
- Mongol Times (2012). "Monggul bichig un job bichihu jui-yin toli". Cite journal requires
|journal=
(help) - "The Unicode® Standard Version 10.0 – Core Specification: South and Central Asia-II" (PDF). Unicode.org. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
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External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mongolian script. |
- CJVlang: Making Sense of the Traditional Mongolian Script
- StudyMongolian: Written forms with audio pronunciation
- The Silver Horde: Mongol Scripts
- Lingua Mongolia: Uighur-script Mongolian Resources
- Omniglot: Mongolian Alphabet (note: contains several table inaccuracies regarding glyphs and transliterations)
- Mongol toli dictionary: state dictionary of Mongolia
- Online tool for Mongolian script transliteration
- Automatic converter for Traditional Mongolian and Cyrillic Mongolian by the Computer College of Inner Mongolia University
- Official Mongolian script version of the People's Daily Online